Jump to content

Bureau of Indian Affairs

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Indian Office" redirects here. For the former British government department, see India Office.
For the Canadian department, see Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada.

Bureau of Indian Affairs
Seal
Flag
Agency overview
FormedMarch 11, 1824; 201 years ago (1824-03-11)
Preceding agency
JurisdictionFederal Government of the United States
HeadquartersMain Interior Building
1849 C Street, NW Washington, DC 20240
Employees4,569 (FY2020)
Annual budget$2.159 billion (FY2021)[1]
Agency executives
  • Bryan Mercier, Acting Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs
  • Stephanie Conduff, Acting Director, Bureau of Indian Affairs
  • Tony Dearman, Director, Bureau of Indian Education
  • Jerry Gidner, Director, Bureau of Trust Funds Administration
Parent agencyUnited States Department of the Interior
Child agencies
  • Bureau of Trust Funds Administration, Bureau of Indian Education
Websitebia.gov
Part of a series on
Indigenous rights
Indalo symbol
Rights
Governmental organizations
United Nations initiatives
International Treaties
NGOs and political groups
Issues
Countries
Category

The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), also known as Indian Affairs (IA),[2] is a United States federal agency within the Department of the Interior. It is responsible for implementing federal laws and policies related to Native Americans and Alaska Natives, and administering and managing over 55,700,000 acres (225,000 km2) of reservations held in trust by the U.S. federal government for indigenous tribes. It renders services to roughly 2 million indigenous Americans across 574 federally recognized tribes.[2][3] The BIA is governed by a director and overseen by the assistant secretary for Indian affairs, who answers to the secretary of the interior.

The BIA works with tribal governments to help administer law enforcement and justice; promote development in agriculture, infrastructure, and the economy; enhance tribal governance; manage natural resources; and generally advance the quality of life in tribal communities.[4] Educational services are provided by Bureau of Indian Education—the only other agency under the Assistant Secretary for Indian affairs—while health care is the responsibility of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services through its Indian Health Service.[5][6]

The BIA is one of the oldest federal agencies in the U.S., with roots tracing back to the Committee on Indian Affairs established by Congress in 1775.[4][7] First headed by Benjamin Franklin, the committee oversaw trade and treaty relations with various indigenous peoples, until the establishment of the Bureau of Indian Affairs by Secretary of War John C. Calhoun in 1824. The BIA gained statutory authority in 1832, and in 1849 was transferred to the newly created Department of the Interior. Until the formal adoption of its current name in 1947, the BIA was variably known as the Indian Office, the Indian Bureau, the Indian Department, and the Indian Service.[4]

The BIA's mission and mandate historically reflected the U.S. government's prevailing policy of forced assimilation of native peoples and the annexation of their land; beginning with the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975, the BIA has increasingly emphasized tribal self-determination and peer-to-peer relationships between tribal governments and federal government.[4]

Between 1824 and 1977, the BIA was led by a total of 42 commissioners, of whom six were of indigenous descent. Since the creation of the position of Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs in 1977, all thirteen occupants up to the present day have been Indigenous, including Bay Mills Indian Community's Bryan Newland, appointed and confirmed to the position in 2021.[4] As of 2020, the majority of BIA employees are American Indian or Alaska Native, the most at any time in the agency's history.[4]

Organization

[edit]
Main Interior Building, the department headquarters

Headquartered in the Main Interior Building in Washington, D.C.,[8] the BIA is headed by a bureau director who reports to the assistant secretary for Indian affairs. The current assistant secretary is Bryan Newland.

The BIA oversees 574 federally recognized tribes through four offices:

  • Office of Indian Services: operates the BIA's general assistance, disaster relief, Indian child welfare, tribal government, Indian self-determination, and Indian Reservation Roads Program.
  • Office of Justice Services (OJS): directly operates or funds law enforcement, tribal courts, and detention facilities on federal Indian lands.[9] OJS funded 208 law enforcement agencies, consisting of 43 BIA-operated police agencies, and 165 tribally operated agencies under contract, or compact with the OJS. The office has seven areas of activity: Criminal Investigations and Police Services, Detention/Corrections, Inspection/Internal Affairs, Tribal Law Enforcement and Special Initiatives, the Indian Police Academy, Tribal Justice Support, and Program Management. The OJS also provides oversight and technical assistance to tribal law enforcement programs when and where requested. It operates four divisions: Corrections, Drug Enforcement, the Indian Police Academy, and Law Enforcement.[10]
  • Office of Trust Services: works with tribes and individual American Indians and Alaska Natives in the management of their trust lands, assets, and resources.
  • The Office of Field Operations: oversees 12 regional offices; Alaska, Great Plains, Northwest, Southern Plains, Eastern, Navajo, Pacific, Southwest, Eastern Oklahoma, Midwest, Rocky Mountain, and Western; and 83 agencies, which carry out the mission of the bureau at the tribal level.

History

[edit]
Ely S. Parker was the first Native American to be appointed as Commissioner of Indian affairs (1869–1871).
Cato Sells, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1913

Early US agencies and legislation: Intercourse Acts

[edit]
Main article: Nonintercourse Act

Agencies related to Native Americans originated in 1775, when the Second Continental Congress created a trio of Indian-related agencies. Benjamin Franklin and Patrick Henry were appointed among the early commissioners to negotiate treaties with Native Americans to obtain their neutrality during the American Revolutionary War.[11]

Office of Indian Trade (1806–1822)

[edit]

In 1789, the U.S. Congress placed Native American relations within the newly formed War Department. By 1806 the Congress had created a Superintendent of Indian Trade, or "Office of Indian Trade"[12] within the War Department, who was charged with maintaining the United States Government Fur Trade Factory System. The post was held by Thomas L. McKenney from 1816 until the abolition of the factory system in 1822.

The government licensed traders to have some control in Indian territories and gain a share of the lucrative trade.

Bureau of Indian Affairs (1824–present)

[edit]

The abolition of the factory system left a vacuum within the U.S. government regarding Native American relations. The Bureau of Indian Affairs was formed on March 11, 1824, by Secretary of War John C. Calhoun, who created the agency as a division within his department, without authorization from the United States Congress.[13] He appointed McKenney as the first head of the office, which went by several names. McKenney preferred to call it the "Indian Office", whereas the current name was preferred by Calhoun.

The Bureau was initially organized by region, with commissions for Superintendents of Indian Affairs granted to prominent citizens in each region of the southern, midwestern and western United States. These superindenents were authorized to negotiate with tribes and oversaw Indian agents in their assigned region.[14][15] The bureau was eventually reorganized in 1878, with superintendencies removed. These were eventually replaced with regional offices, which continue today.

The Removal Era (1830–1850)

[edit]

The BIA's goal to protect domestic and dependent nations, was reaffirmed by the 1831 court case Cherokee Nation v. Georgia. The Supreme Court originally refused to hear the case, because the Cherokee nation was not an independent state and could not litigate in the federal court.[16] It was not until the court case Worcester v. Georgia, when Chief Justice John Marshall allowed Native American tribes to be recognized as "domestic dependent nations." These court cases set precedent for future treaties, as more Native tribes were recognized as domestic and dependent nations.[17]

This period was encompassed by westward expansion and the removal of Native Nations. In 1833 Georgians fought for the removal of the Cherokee Nation from the state of Georgia. Despite the rulings of Worcester v. Georgia, President Jackson and John C. Calhoun created a plan for removal. The removal of the Cherokee Nation occurred in 1838 and was accompanied by the Treaty of 1846. When reparations from the treaty were unfulfilled, the Senate Committee on the Indian Affairs made the final settlement in 1850. This settlement, "supported the position of the Cherokee that the cost of maintaining the tribesman during their removal and the years upkeep after their arrival West should be paid by the federal government, and the expense of the removal agents should be paid as well."[16]

In 1832 Congress established the position of Commissioner of Indian Affairs. In 1849 Indian Affairs was transferred to the newly established U.S. Department of the Interior. In 1869, Ely Samuel Parker was the first Native American to be appointed as commissioner of Indian affairs.

Assimilation (1890–1930)

[edit]
Main article: American Indian boarding schools

One of the most controversial policies of the Bureau of Indian Affairs was the late 19th to early 20th century decision to educate native children in separate boarding schools, such as the Carlisle Indian Industrial School. The goal was to train students in the proper behavior according to prevailing standards of "civilization." That way they could assimilate into American society and not be permanently trapped in reservations. The boarding schools prohibited students from using their indigenous languages, practices, and cultures.[18]

Another force for assimilation and Euro-American control was the Bureau of Indian Affairs tribal police force. This was designed by its agents to decrease the power of American Indian leaders.[19]

Reform and reorganization (mid to late 20th century)

[edit]
1940 Indians at Work magazine, published by the Office of Indian Affairs, predecessor agency to the Bureau of Indian Affairs

The bureau was renamed from Office of Indian Affairs to Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1947.

With the rise of American Indian activism in the 1960s and 1970s and increasing demands for enforcement of treaty rights and sovereignty, the 1970s were a particularly turbulent period of BIA history.[20] The rise of activist groups such as the American Indian Movement (AIM) worried the U.S. government; the FBI responded both overtly and covertly (by creating COINTELPRO and other programs) to suppress possible uprisings among native peoples.[21]

As a branch of the U.S. government with personnel on Indian reservations, BIA police were involved in political actions such as:

The occupation of BIA headquarters in Washington, D.C., in 1972: On November 3, 1972, a group of around 500 American Indians with the AIM took over the BIA building, the culmination of their Trail of Broken Treaties walk. They intended to bring attention to American Indian issues, including their demands for renewed negotiation of treaties, enforcement of treaty rights and improvement in living standards. They occupied the Department of Interior headquarters from November 3 to 9, 1972.[22]

Feeling the government was ignoring them, the protesters vandalized the building. After a week, the protesters left, having caused $700,000 in damages. Many records were lost, destroyed or stolen, including irreplaceable treaties, deeds, and water rights records, which some Indian officials said could set the tribes back 50 to 100 years.[23][24][citation needed]

The BIA was implicated in supporting controversial tribal presidents, notably Dick Wilson, who was charged with being authoritarian; using tribal funds for a private paramilitary force, the Guardians of the Oglala Nation (or "GOON squad"), which he employed against opponents; intimidation of voters in the 1974 election; misappropriation of funds, and other misdeeds.[26] Many native peoples continue to oppose policies of the BIA. In particular, problems in enforcing treaties, handling records and trust land incomes were disputed.

21st century

[edit]

In 2002 Congress worked with the Bureau to prepare bill S.1392, which established procedures for tribal recognition. A separate bill S. 1393 ensured full and fair participation in decision-making processes at the Bureau via grants. Both bills addressed what services, limitations, obligations, and responsibilities a federally recognized tribe possessed. The bills excluded any splinter groups, political factions, and any groups formed after December 31, 2002.[27]

In 2013 the Bureau was greatly affected by sequestration funding cuts of $800 million, which particularly affected the already-underfunded Indian Health Service.[28][29]

[edit]

Employee overtime

[edit]

The Bureau of Indian Affairs has been sued four times in class action overtime lawsuits brought by the Federation of Indian Service Employees,[30] a union which represents the federal civilian employees of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Bureau of Indian Education, the assistant secretary of Indian affairs and the Office of the Special Trustee for Indian Affairs. The grievances allege widespread violations of the Fair Labor Standards Act and claim tens of millions of dollars in damages.

Trust assets

[edit]

Cobell vs. Salazar, a major class action case related to trust lands, was settled in December 2009. The suit was filed against the U.S. Department of Interior, of which the BIA is a part. A major responsibility has been the management of the Indian trust accounts. This was a class-action lawsuit regarding the federal government's management and accounting of more than 300,000 individual American Indian and Alaska Native trust accounts. A settlement fund totaling $3.4 billion is to be distributed to class members. This is to compensate for claims that prior U.S. officials had mismanaged the administration of Indian trust assets. In addition, the settlement establishes a $2 billion fund enabling federally recognized tribes to voluntarily buy back and consolidate fractionated land interests.[31]

Mission

[edit]

The bureau is currently trying to evolve from a supervisory to an advisory role. However, this has been a difficult task as the BIA is known by many Indians as playing a police role in which the U.S. government historically dictated to tribes and their members what they could and could not do in accordance with treaties signed by both.[32]

Commissioners and assistant secretaries

[edit]

Commissioners and assistant secretaries of Indian Affairs include:[33]


Superintendents of the Office of Indian Trade

[edit]

From 1806 until 1824, relations with the North American tribes were regulated by the Office of Indian Trade within the Department of War. Four men were appointed during this time period as superintendents to negotiate treaties with and regulate trade with the native Americans. In 1824, the office was reorganized and William Clark's position became superfluous even though he held the title of Superintendent for the rest of his life.

No. Image Superintendent Term started Term ended Notes
1 John Shee July 8, 1806 October 3, 1807 [34]
2 John Mason October 4, 1807 April 1, 1816 [35]
3 Thomas L. McKenney April 12, 1816 May 6, 1822 [36]
4 William Clark May 28, 1822 March 11, 1824 [37]
March 12, 1824 September 1, 1838 position became subservient to the new chief clerk position[37]

Chief Clerk of the Indian Office

[edit]

The following three persons had served as chief clerk in the Indian Office within the Department of War from 1824 until the office was transferred to the Department of the Interior in 1832:[38]

No. Image Chief Clerk Term started Term ended Notes
1 Thomas L. McKenney March 12, 1824 August 16, 1830 [36]
2 Samuel S. Hamilton September 30, 1830 August 31, 1831 [39]
3 Elbert Herring August 12, 1831 July 9, 1832 [40]

Commissioners of Indian Affairs

[edit]

The following persons have led the Bureau of Indian Affairs as Commissioner from 1832 until 1981:[41][42][38]

No. Image Commissioner Term started Term ended Notes
1 Elbert Herring July 10, 1832 July 2, 1836 [40]
2 Carey A. Harris July 4, 1836 October 19, 1838 [43]
3 Thomas Hartley Crawford October 22, 1838 October 29, 1845 [44]
4 William Medill October 28, 1845 June 30, 1849 [45]
5 Orlando Brown June 30, 1849 July 1, 1850 [46]
6 Luke Lea July 1, 1850 March 24, 1853 [47]
7 George Washington Manypenny March 31, 1853 March 30, 1857 [48]
8 James W. Denver April 17, 1857 December 2, 1857 [49]
9 Charles E. Mix June 14, 1858 November 8, 1858 [50]
10 James W. Denver November 8, 1858 March 31, 1859 [49]
11 Alfred B. Greenwood May 4, 1859 April 13, 1861 [51]
12 William P. Dole March 12, 1861 July 11, 1865 [52]
13 Dennis N. Cooley July 9, 1865 November 1, 1866 [53]
14 Lewis V. Bogy November 1, 1866 March 29, 1867 [54]
15 Nathaniel Green Taylor March 29, 1867 April 25, 1869 [55]
16 Ely S. Parker April 26, 1869 July 24, 1871 first Native American to hold the position[56]
– Henry R. Clum July 24, 1871 November 20, 1871 Acting[33]
17 Francis A. Walker November 27, 1871 January 1, 1873 [57]
18 Edward Parmelee Smith March 17, 1873 December 11, 1875 [58]
19 John Q. Smith December 11, 1875 September 27, 1877 [59]
20 Ezra A. Hayt September 20, 1877 January 29, 1880 [60]
21 Rowland E. Trowbridge March 15, 1880 March 19, 1881 [61]
– Henry R. Clum March 19, 1881 April 14, 1881 Acting[33]
22 Hiram Price May 6, 1881 March 26, 1885 [62]
23 John DeWitt Clinton Atkins March 21, 1885 June 14, 1888 [63]
24 John H. Oberly October 10, 1888 June 30, 1889 [64]
25 Thomas Jefferson Morgan July 1, 1889 March 3, 1893 [65]
26 Daniel M. Browning April 13, 1893 May 3, 1897 [66]
27 William Arthur Jones May 3, 1897 January 1, 1905 [67]
28 Francis E. Leupp January 1, 1905 June 18, 1909 [68]
29 Robert G. Valentine June 29, 1909 September 10, 1912 [69]
– Frederick H. Abbott September 10, 1912 June 4, 1913 Acting[33]
30 Cato Sells June 2, 1913 March 29, 1921 [70]
31 Charles H. Burke May 7, 1921 June 30, 1929 [71]
32 Charles J. Rhoads April 18, 1929 April 20, 1933 [72]
33 John Collier April 21, 1933 January 22, 1945 [73]
34 William A. Brophy March 6, 1945 June 3, 1948 [74]
– William R. Zimmerman June 3, 1948 March 10, 1949 acting[33]
35 John R. Nichols April 13, 1949 March 23, 1950 [75]
36 Dillon S. Myer May 5, 1950 March 19, 1953 [76]
– W. Barton Greenwood March 20, 1953 July 28, 1953 Acting[33]
37 Glenn L. Emmons August 10, 1953 January 7, 1961 [77]
– John O. Crow February 10, 1961 September 25, 1961 acting[78][79][80]
38 Philleo Nash September 26, 1961 March 15, 1966 [81]
39 Robert L. Bennett April 27, 1966 May 31, 1969 [82]
40 Louis R. Bruce August 8, 1969 January 20, 1973 [83][84]
– Marvin L. Franklin February 7, 1973 December 4, 1974 Acting (unconfirmed nominee)[33]
41 Morris Thompson December 4, 1973 November 3, 1976 [85]
42 Benjamin Reifel December 7, 1976 January 28, 1977 [86]
– Raymond Butler January 28, 1977 September 19, 1977 Acting[33]
43 William E. Hallett December 16, 1979 January 19, 1981 [87][88]

Assistant Secretaries of the Interior for Indian Affairs

[edit]

The following persons have led the Bureau of Indian Affairs as Assistant Secretaries of the Interior for Indian Affairs since 1977:[89][33]

No. Image Assistant Secretary Term started Term ended Affiliation Notes
1 Forrest Gerard September 12, 1977 January 19, 1980 Blackfeet [90]
2 Thomas W. Fredericks June 18, 1980 January 19, 1981 Mandan–Hidatsa nominated, but never confirmed by Senate[91]
3 Kenneth L. Smith May 13, 1981 December 7, 1984 Wasco [92]
4 Ross Swimmer December 5, 1985 January 29, 1989 Cherokee [93]
– William Ragsdale January 29, 1989 June 20, 1989 Cherokee acting[33]
5 Eddie Frank Brown June 26, 1989 July 16, 1993 Yaqui [94]
6 Ada E. Deer November 12, 1997July 16, 1993 Menominee [95]
7 Kevin Gover November 12, 1997 January 3, 2001 Pawnee [96]
– James H. McDivitt January 20, 2001 July 3, 2001 acting[33]
8 Neal A. McCaleb July 4, 2001 January 6, 2003 Chickasaw [97]
– Aurene M. Martin January 6, 2003 February 2, 2004 Bad River Chippewa acting[33]
9 Dave Anderson February 2, 2004 February 12, 2005 Lac Court Oreille Chippewa [98]
– Jim Cason February 12, 2005 March 5, 2007 acting[33]
10 Carl J. Artman March 8, 2007 May 23, 2008 Oneida [99]
– George T. Skibine May 23, 2008 January 20, 2009 Osage acting[33]
11 Larry Echo Hawk May 22, 2009 April 27, 2012 Pawnee [100]
– Donald "Del" Laverdure April 27, 2012 October 9, 2012 Crow acting[33]
12 Kevin K. Washburn October 9, 2012 December 31, 2015 Chickasaw [101]
– Lawrence S. Roberts January 1, 2016 January 20, 2017 Oneida acting[102][33]
– Michael S. Black January 20, 2017 June 11, 2017 Oglala Sioux acting[103][33]
– John Tahsuda September 3, 2017 July 30, 2018 Kiowa acting[104]
13 Tara Sweeney July 30, 2018 January 20, 2021 Inupiat [105]
14 Bryan Newland September 8, 2021 January 20, 2025 Ojibwe [106]
– Bryan Mercier January 20, 2025 March 2025 Grand Ronde acting[107][108]
– Scott Davis March 2025 present Standing Rock Sioux acting[109][110]


See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Tana Fitzpatrick (February 4, 2021). The Bureau of Indian Affairs: FY2021 Appropriations (Report). Congressional Research Service. p. 1. Retrieved July 19, 2021.
  2. ^ a b "About Us | Indian Affairs". bia.gov. Retrieved December 12, 2020.
  3. ^ "Federal Register, Volume 83, Number 141 dated July 23, 2018" (PDF). Library of Congress. RetrievedOctober 5, 2018.
  4. ^ a b c d e f "Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) | Indian Affairs". bia.gov. Retrieved December 12, 2020.
  5. ^ "Education | Indian Affairs". bia.gov. Retrieved December 4, 2020.
  6. ^ "Indian Health Service | Indian Health Service (IHS)". Indian Health Service. Retrieved December 4, 2020.
  7. ^ Article I, Section 8, U.S. Constitution.
  8. ^ "Home". Bureau of Indian Affairs. Retrieved June 23, 2022. 1849 C Street NW Washington, DC 20240 – Identified as the Main Interior Building here: "The meeting will be held at 1849 C Street, NW, Main Interior Building,[...]"
  9. ^ Hegyi, Nate (December 23, 2022). "Congress tasks a federal watchdog to examine Indian Affairs' troubled tribal jails". NPR News. Retrieved December 24, 2022.
  10. ^ "Who We Are", BIA
  11. ^ Henson, C.L. "From War to Self-Determination: a history of the Bureau of Indian Affairs". American Resources on the Net. Retrieved May 6, 2016.
  12. ^ Waldman, Carl; Braun, Molly (2009). Atlas of the North American Indian. Infobase Publishing. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-8160-6858-6. in 1806, an Office of Indian Trade was created within the War Department
  13. ^ Jackson, Curtis (1997). A History of the Bureau of Indian affairs and Its Activities Among Indians. San Francisco, California: R & E Research. p. 43.
  14. ^ chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.archives.gov/files/research/native-americans/bia/m1166.pdf
  15. ^ https://historyhub.history.gov/native-american-records/b/native-american-records-blog/posts/office-of-indian-affairs-superintendency-records-1819-1878
  16. ^ a b Harmon, George Dewey (1941). Sixty Years of Indian Affairs. New York: The University of North Carolina Press. pp. 174–196.
  17. ^ Jackson, Curtis (1977). A History of The Bureau of Indian Affairs And Its Activities Among Indians. San Francisco, California: R & E Research Associates. p. 59.
  18. ^ David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875–1928 (1995) pp 12-16; see online evaluation of the book.
  19. ^ Lyden, Fremont (1992). Native Americans and Public Policy. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 23–41.
  20. ^ Philip Worchel, Philip G. Hester and Philip S. Kopala, "Collective Protest and Legitimacy of Authority: Theory and Research," The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 18 (1) 1974): 37–54
  21. ^ The COINTELPRO PAPERS – Chapter 7: COINTELPRO – AIM Archived July 23, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
  22. ^ Paul Smith and Robert Warrior, Like a Hurricane: The Indian Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee, New York: The New Press, 1996.
  23. ^ "Stop bandwidth theft!". Maquah.net. Archived from the original on June 14, 2011. Retrieved June 8, 2012.
  24. ^ "Stop bandwidth theft!". Maquah.net. Archived from the original on June 14, 2011. Retrieved June 8, 2012.
  25. ^ "American Indian Rights Activist Vernon Bellecourt", Washington Post, October 14, 2007
  26. ^ John Sanchez, et al. "Rhetorical Exclusion: The Government's Case Against American Indian Activists, AIM, and Leonard Peltier." American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 23(2) (1999): 31+.
  27. ^ Congress, United States (2003). Tribal Recognition : Hearing before the Committee on Indian Affairs, United States Senate, One Hundred Seventh Congress, Second Session, on S. 1392, to Establish Procedures for the Bureau of Indian Affairs of the Department of the Interior with Respect to Tribal Recognition and S. 1393, to Provide Grants to Ensure Full and Fair Participation in Certain Decision making Processes at the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Washington D.C.: Washington D.C. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 1–3.
  28. ^ Gale Courey Toensing (March 27, 2013). "Sequestration Grounds Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs". Indian Country Today. Archived from the original on April 20, 2013. Retrieved March 28, 2013.
  29. ^ Editorial Board (March 20, 2013). "The Sequester Hits the Reservation" (Editorial). The New York Times. Retrieved March 28, 2013.
  30. ^ "FEDERATION OF INDIAN SERVICE EMPLOYEES - AFT - AFL/CIO, Local 4524 - Home". Ief.aft.org. Archived from the original on August 19, 2009. Retrieved June 8, 2012.
  31. ^ "Cobell vs. Salazar Lawsuit". doi.gov/tribes/special-trustee.cfm. Office of Special Trustee, n.d. Web. April 24, 2011
  32. ^ "From War to Self-Determination: the Bureau of Indian Affairs". Americansc.org.uk. May 25, 2011. Retrieved June 8, 2012.
  33. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Dejong, David H. (2022). "Preface". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. xv–xxii.
  34. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "5 – John Shee, Superintendent of Indian Trade". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 30–32.
  35. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "6 – John M. Mason, Superintendent of Indian Trade". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 33–39.
  36. ^ a b Dejong, David H. (2022). "7 – Thomas L. McKenney, Superintendent of Indian Trade (April 12, 1816–May 6, 1822), Chief Clerk (March 12, 1824–August 16, 1830)". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 40–45.
  37. ^ a b Dejong, David H. (2022). "8 – William Clark, Superintendent of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 46–47.
  38. ^ a b Dejong, David H. (2022). Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press.
  39. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "9 – Samuel S. Hamilton, Chief Clerk". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 48–50.
  40. ^ a b Dejong, David H. (2022). "10 – Elbert Herring, Chief Clerk (August 12, 1831–July 9, 1832), Commissioner of Indian Affairs (July 10, 1832–July 2, 1836)". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 51–55.
  41. ^ "The Commissioners of Indian Affairs (1824 – 1981)" (PDF). BIA.
  42. ^ "Bureau of Indian Affairs History". BIA.
  43. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "11 – Carey Allen Harris, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 56–61.
  44. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "12 – Thomas Hartley Crawford, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 62–68.
  45. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "13 – William Medill, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 69–75.
  46. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "14 – Orlando Brown, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 76–79.
  47. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "15 – Luke Lea, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 80–85.
  48. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "16 – George W. Manypenny, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 86–94.
  49. ^ a b Dejong, David H. (2022). "17 – James W. Denver, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 95–99.
  50. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "18 – Charles E. Mix, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 100–105.
  51. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "19 – Alfred B. Greenwood, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 106–112.
  52. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "20 – William P. Dole, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 113–120.
  53. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "21 – Dennis N. Cooley, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 121–126.
  54. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "22 – Lewis V. Bogy, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 127–129.
  55. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "23– Nathaniel G. Taylor, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 130–138.
  56. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "24 – Ely S. Parker, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 139–145.
  57. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "25 – Francis A. Walker, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 146–151.
  58. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "26 – Edward P. Smith, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 154–162.
  59. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "27 – John Quincy Smith, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 163–169.
  60. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "28 – Ezra A. Hayt, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 170–177.
  61. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "29 – Rowland E. Trowbridge, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 178–181.
  62. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "30 – Hiram Price, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 182–189.
  63. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "31 – John DeWitt Clinton Atkins, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 190–199.
  64. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "32 – John H. Oberly, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 200–204.
  65. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "33 – Thomas Jefferson Morgan, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 205–216.
  66. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "34 – Daniel M. Browning, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 217–221.
  67. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "35 – William A. Jones, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 222–230.
  68. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "36 – Francis E. Leupp, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 231–239.
  69. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "37 – Robert G. Valentine, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 240–245.
  70. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "38 – Cato Sells, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 246–253.
  71. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "39 – Charles Henry Burke, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 254–262.
  72. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "40 – Charles James Rhoads, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 263–272.
  73. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "41 – John Collier, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 273–282.
  74. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "42 – William A. Brophy, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 283–289.
  75. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "43 – John R. Nichols, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 290–294.
  76. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "44 – Dillon S. Myer, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 295–301.
  77. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "45 – Glenn L. Emmons, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 302–310.
  78. ^ "John O. Crow Named Acting Commissioner of Indian Affairs and Member of Advisory Board on Indian Affairs" (PDF). Bureau of Indian Affairs. February 10, 1961. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 10, 2014. Retrieved July 30, 2015.
  79. ^ "Nash Nominated as Commissioner of Indian Affairs; Crow Appointed Deputy Commissioner" (PDF). Bureau of Indian Affairs. August 1, 1961. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved July 30, 2015.
  80. ^ "John O. Crow Named Acting Commissioner of Indian Affairs and Member of Advisory Board on Indian Affairs". DOI. February 10, 1961.
  81. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "46 – Philleo Nash, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 311–319.
  82. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "47 – Robert L. Bennett, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 320–327.
  83. ^ "Former commissioner of Indian Affairs dead at 89". New York Times. New York Times. Retrieved October 25, 2024.
  84. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "48 – Louis Rook Bruce, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 328–334.
  85. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "50 – Morris Thompson, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 339–343.
  86. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "51 – Ben Reifel, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 344–345.
  87. ^ "Hallett to Take Oath of Office as the 42nd Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs". DOI. December 6, 1979. Archived from the original on August 7, 2021.
  88. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "53 – William E. Hallett, Commissioner of Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 346–352.
  89. ^ "Assistant Secretaries – Indian Affairs: 1977-2016" (PDF). BIA.
  90. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "52 – Forrest J. Gerard, Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 346–352.
  91. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "54 – Thomas W. Fredericks, Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 357–362.
  92. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "55 – Kenneth L. Smith, Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 363–366.
  93. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "56 – Ross O. Swimmer, Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 367–374.
  94. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "57 – Eddie F. Brown, Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 375–381.
  95. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "58 – Ada E. Deer, Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 382–386.
  96. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "59 – Kevin Gover, Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 387–393.
  97. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "60 – Neil A. McCaleb, Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 394–398.
  98. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "61 – David W. Anderson, Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 399–402.
  99. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "62 – Carl J. Artman, Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 403–406.
  100. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "63 – Larry J. Echo Hawk, Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 407–412.
  101. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "64 – Kevin K. Washburn, Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 413–417.
  102. ^ "Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs Kevin Washburn to Conclude Successful Tenure at Interior, Return to Teaching" (PDF). indianaffairs.gov. December 10, 201. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 2, 2018. Retrieved May 1, 2018.
  103. ^ "Indian Affairs Leadership". Indian Affairs. Archived from the original on May 13, 2017. Retrieved May 11, 2017.
  104. ^ "Kiowa citizen John Tahsuda set to join Bureau of Indian Affairs leadership team". Indianz.Com. August 24, 2017.
  105. ^ Dejong, David H. (2022). "65 – Tara MacLean Sweeney, Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs". Paternalism to Partnership: The Administration of Indian Affairs, 1786–2021. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 418–421.
  106. ^ "Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary - Indian Affairs Bryan Newland | Indian Affairs". bia.gov. Retrieved June 30, 2021.
  107. ^ "Leadership". BIA. Archived from the original on January 24, 2025.
  108. ^ "Leadership". BIA. Archived from the original on March 21, 2025.
  109. ^ Harris, Joey (March 18, 2025). "Scott Davis, former North Dakota Indian Affairs head, joins Interior Department". The Bismarck Tribune.
  110. ^ "Leadership". BIA. Archived from the original on April 3, 2025.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Belko, William S. "'John C. Calhoun and the Creation of the Bureau of Indian Affairs: An Essay on Political Rivalry, Ideology, and Policymaking in the Early Republic," South Carolina Historical Magazine 2004 105(3): 170–97. ISSN 0038-3082
  • Brophy, William A., and Aberle, Sophie D. The Indian: America's Unfinished Business. Report of the Commission on the Rights, Liberties, and Responsibilities of the American Indian (University of Oklahoma Press, 1966).
  • Cahill, Cathleen D. Federal Fathers and Mothers: A Social History of the United States Indian Service, 1869–1933 (U of North Carolina Press, 2011) 368 pp. online review
  • Champagne, Duane. "Organizational change and conflict: A case study of the Bureau of Indian Affairs." American Indian Culture and Research Journal 7.3 (1983). online
  • Danziger Jr, Edmund J. "The Indian Office During The Civil War: Impotence in Indian Affairs." South Dakota History 5 (1974): 52–72. online
  • Deloria, Jr., Vine, and David E. Wilkins, Tribes, Treaties, & Constitutional Tribulations (Austin, 1999)
  • Fixico, Donald L. Bureau of Indian Affairs (ABC-CLIO, 2012)
  • Jackson, Curtis E. and Marcia J. Galli. A history of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and its activities among Indians (1977) online
  • Jackson, Helen H. A Century of Dishonor: A Sketch of the U. S. Government's Dealings with Some of the Indian Tribes (1881) online edition highly critical and widely read in 1880s
  • Lambert, Valerie. "The big black box of Indian country: The Bureau of Indian Affairs and the federal-Indian relationship." American Indian Quarterly 40.4 (2016): 333–363. online
  • Lambert, Valerie. "Rethinking American Indian and Non-Indian Relations in the United States and Exploring Tribal Sovereignty: Perspectives from Indian Country and from Inside the Bureau of Indian Affairs." PoLAR: Political and Legal Anthropology Review 40.2 (2017): 278–294. online
  • Leupp, F. E. The Indian and His Problem (1910) online edition
  • McCarthy, Robert. "The Bureau of Indian Affairs and the federal trust obligation to American Indians." Brigham Young University Journal of Public Law 19 (2004): 1–160+. online, comprehensive overview
  • Meriam, Lewis, et al., The Problem of Indian Administration, Studies in Administration, (Johns Hopkins, 1928), 898 pp; a major scholarly overview; [1]
  • Nankano, Yumiko. "The Campaign for Civilization or Removal: Thomas L. McKenney and Federal Indian Affairs in the Formative Years" Bulletin of the Faculty of Humanities, Seikei University No.48 (2013) 85+ online
  • Officer, James E. "The Bureau of Indian affairs since 1945: an assessment." The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 436.1 (1978): 61–72.
  • Osburn, Katherine M. B. " 'To build up the morals of the tribe': Southern Ute women's sexual behavior and the Office of Indian Affairs, 1895-1932." Journal of Women's history 9.3 (1997): 10–27. excerpt
  • Pevar, Stephen L. The Rights of Indians and Tribes (Southern Illinois UP, 2002)
  • Porter, Frank W. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (1988), for secondary schools online
  • Prucha, Francis P. Atlas of American Indian Affairs (U of Nebraska Press, 1990)
  • Prucha, Francis P. The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians (Abridged Edition 1986) online
  • Rockwell, Stephen J. Indian Affairs and the Administrative State in the Nineteenth Century (2010) online
  • Schmeckebier, L. F. Office of Indian Affairs: History, Activities, and Organization, Service Monograph 48 (Johns Hopkins, 1927) online
  • STUART, PAUL HENRY. "THE U.S. OFFICE OF INDIAN AFFAIRS, 1865-1900: THE INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF A FORMAL ORGANIZATION" (PhD dissertation, The University of Wisconsin - Madison; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  1978. 7814288).
  • Sutton, I. "Indian Country and the Law: Land Tenure, Tribal Sovereignty, and the States," ch. 36 in Law in the Western United States, ed. G. M. Bakken (U Oklahoma Press, 2000)
  • Taylor, Theodore W. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (Routledge, 2019) online
  • Taylor, Theodore W. American Indian policy (1983) online
  • Treglia, Gabriella. "Cultural Pluralism or Cultural Imposition? Examining the Bureau of Indian Affairs' Education Reforms during the Indian New Deal (1933–1945)." Journal of the Southwest 61.4 (2019): 821–862. excerpt

Primary sources

[edit]
  • Francis P. Prucha, ed. Documents of United States Indian Policy (3rd ed. 2000) online
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bureau of Indian Affairs (United States).
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs&oldid=1288968433"